Lesson One - Introduction

Importance of Our Forests and the Forest Industry

Diverse, healthy forests are vital to the well being of our planet. Forests are complex, living systems that are home to a variety of organisms. They protect our soils, rivers and lakes and are a valuable recreational resource. Even the quality of the air we breathe depends, to a great extent, on forests. Trees store carbon and absorb carbon dioxide (especially fast growing ones), thereby reducing the greenhouse effect.

Economically, the forest industry is vital to Canada and Nova Scotia. (Figure 1) Nationally, in 2003, the industry contributed over $33 billion to the gross domestic product; almost $40 billion to our exports; and $29.7 billion to our balance of trade (Natural Resources Canada, 2004).

Provincially, in 2003, forestry contributed to our economy through more than $923 million in exports; and over $873 million to our balance of trade. Over 13,000 jobs result directly from the forestry industry in Nova Scotia (Natural Resources Canada, 2004).

To maintain this industry, approximately 6 million cubic meters (m3) of roundwood is harvested each year in the province (Natural Resources Canada, 2004). Sixty percent of this wood comes from small private woodlots, which cover 50% percent of the forested land base in Nova Scotia. The land is owned by over 31,000 small landowners (Dansereau & deMarsh, 2003, Canadian Institute of Forestry, 2001).

The forest has provided Nova Scotians with a way of life for many generations. If we are to maintain a healthy productive forest in the future, it is important that everyone understand the forest and practice sustainable forest management.

Understanding trees and how they grow is basic to the practice of silviculture. Silviculture is the practice by which stands are tended, harvested and replaced by new stands to meet specified objectives. It includes the “green circle” from artificial regeneration or natural regeneration to harvesting (Figure 2).

The intent of this module is to help readers understand some basic characteristics of tree species which are important to the practice of silviculture. It does not discuss silviculture techniques, or the related subject of forest ecology; these are dealt with in modules 2,3,5 and 7 respectively.

The Forest of the Past

As the original inhabitants of this province, the Mi’kmaq, occupied most of the land prior to the arrival of the European settlers. The First Nations people had a unique relationship to the earth’s resources, engaging in various life-supporting activities, ranging from hunting and gathering, to agricultural activities. They believed that the richness of the earth was provided by their Creator. The Aboriginal peoples assumed a role of stewardship and pursued their activities guided by principles of respect and responsibility to the land and natural resources (NSDNR, Education Module).

The first Europeans had a different view of the seemingly endless forest of pine, spruce, hemlock and majestic hardwoods. They saw the forest as something that had to be conquered if they were to survive.

The same forest that initially presented an obstacle to the survival and success of the new settlers soon became a source of wealth. The best white pine trees were cut and exported to supply the world shipbuilding industry. Later, the demand for spruce and hemlock lumber fed the local and export markets. When the supply of sawlogs dwindled, pulp mills were established and areas previously cut were recut. Each time the forest was cut, only the biggest and best trees were taken. The removal of the very best trees is called selective harvesting or high-grading and was a common practice. In many cases, only the poor quality trees were left. Since these trees were the main seed source, they tended to produce poor quality, sparse stands of low volume.

The attitude of most people at that time was that the supply of wood was endless. It didn’t take long before the forests of Nova Scotia consisted of poor quality trees. A study conducted by Fernow (a noted forester) in 1909-1910 concluded that the forest was:

“largely in poor condition, and is being annually further deteriorated by abuse and injudicious use because those owning it are mostly not concerned in its future and do not realize its potentialities”.

Disturbances like fire and insect outbreaks have also shaped our forest. Fires, like those caused by lightening, are a natural part of the forest ecosystem. During the early 1900’s, fire was used to clear land. These fires accidentally spread into the surrounding forest and destroyed thousands of acres of merchantable timber. A fire prevention and suppression program began in 1927, when the amount of damage caused by these man-made fires was realized. Trees are also susceptible to insects and disease. While they are a natural occurrence, they can adversely affect the economic quality of our forest.

Clearcutting began in the late 1960’s and 1970’s with the introduction of mechanical logging equipment (Johnson, 1986). While it is an appropriate harvesting system in some forests, clearcutting was often not done properly and has produced some poor quality forests. It removes all merchantable trees from an area at the same time. Large clearcuts tend to regenerate with species, such as trembling aspen, pin cherry, and red maple. These species have less economic value and are the pioneer species of the Acadian Forest.

Woodlands were not always properly managed in the past because settlers lacked the knowledge; there were few established guidelines, and there was limited revenue. Many operators were simply unaware of the long-term effects of high-grading. Minimal returns on stumpage did not encourage reinvestment in the forest, and legislative guidelines for harvesting methods were not enforced.

The Forests of Today

Nova Scotia is located in the Acadian Forest Region of Canada. This is a relatively small region covering nearly all of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and southern New Brunswick. It is a transition zone between the southern deciduous forest and the coniferous forest to our north (Farr, 2003). The Acadian Forest is characterized by a variety of coniferous and deciduous tree species. In all there are 30 tree species that are native to the Acadian Forest (Saunders,1995).

The demand for forest products has increased significantly over the past ten years. This has lead to significant harvest increases, especially on private lands (NSDNR, 1997). With approximately 50% of the productive forest in private ownership, it is essential that woodlot owners practice good management, for wood production, biodiversity, wildlife, water quality, recreation and other values.

The provincial government recognized the values of private woodlots in its 1986 ‘Forestry Policy’. This policy “encouraged the development and management of private forest lands as the primary source of timber for industry in Nova Scotia” while ensuring owners “continued to enjoy the traditional rights and responsibilities of private ownership of land.”

In 1997, the provincial government produced ‘Toward Sustainable Forestry: A Position Paper’ to reflect evolving values and concerns, as well as society’s changing needs and expectations for stainable development. The ‘Forest Sustainability Regulations’, enacted in 2000, require certain forestry companies, based on their annual volume of wood acquired, to undertake annual silviculture work on private land. (Private land means all lands excluding Crown land.) Companies can meet the requirements of these regulations by carrying out a silviculture program on private lands, by contributing money to a special fund called the Sustainable Forestry Fund, or some combination of both. The intent of the new regulation is to increase the amount of silviculture work on private lands (NSDNR, 2000a).

The total gross merchantable volume for all species in Nova Scotia is 404 million cubic metres (168 million cords). Of this, 70% is softwood (282 million cubic metres or 118 million cords) and 30% is hardwood (122 million cubic metres or 50 million cords) (Townsend, 2004). Harvesting on Crown and industrial lands has remained within potential wood supply limits while softwood harvesting on small-private woodlots has increased in recent years (Atlantic Provinces Economic Council, 2000). As a result of the Forest Sustainability Regulations, increased silviculture should be able to offset this rise in harvest level.

Because the best land was granted to the public, small private woodlots tend to have a higher net growth rate than those of Crown lands. Therefore, silvicultural investment on private woodlots usually generates a relatively higher return. The average growth rate for Nova Scotia forests is 2.0 cubic metres per hectare per year (0.9 cords per acre per year). With the use of appropriate silviculture, this growth can be increased to an estimated 5.5 m3/ha/yr. (2.5 cd/ac/yr)(NSDNR, 2000b).

A combination of knowledgeable, committed land owners, cash incentives for silviculture programs, tax incentives, public education, legislation, and increased wood prices are necessary for well managed woodlots. Past winners of the Woodlot Owner of the Year Program provide evidence that N.S. has keen and knowledgeable woodlot owners. Cash incentives are being provided by Provincial and industry programs, such as the Forest Sustainability Regulations. These home study modules and similar courses help landowners learn more about forest management and legislation such as the Wildlife Habitat and Watercourse Protection Regulations ensure valuable habitat is protected on all land.

The Future Forest

Depending on species, a forest may take 40 to 100 years to mature. Consequently, we must practice sound management today to ensure productive and healthy forests for our children.

We must harvest with the future in mind. This means leaving the best trees as a seed source so that new trees are of good quality and health. This means ensuring there are adequate buffers along water ways. It also means managing for a variety of species, because a diverse ecosystem is stable and is better able to handle disturbances. These are some of the aspects woodlot owners must address when deciding how best to manage their land to meet the needs of society and woodlot owners today, and the needs of future generations.

Proper forestry practices must be the concern of everyone regardless of whether or not they work in the forest industry. We have used our forest to build a great nation. Now it is time to ensure the future forest is managed for a variety of values, species and age classes. Through education, financial incentives, tax incentives and appropriate legislation, diverse healthy forests will be sustained.

Module 1 - Lesson One Quiz

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Lesson Two - Softwood Tree Identification and Silvics

To practice silviculture in Nova Scotia it is essential to recognize common trees. Once a tree is identified you can understand its rooting habit, windfirmness, associated species, favored growing sites and shade tolerance. With this information you can make an informed decision about the trees on your woodlot. For more information about common trees in Nova Scotia consult Trees of Nova Scotia (Saunders, 1995).

Lesson Two and Three briefly discuss soil types and characteristics. More information on soils can be found in Module 7 (Woodlot Ecology). For help in determining the type of soil on your woodlot consult the Forest Ecosystem Classification Guide published by the Nova Forest Alliance (Keys et al. 2003) listed in the ‘Further Reading’ section of this module.

This lesson presents the silvics and field identification characteristics of softwood trees in Nova Scotia. The section entitled “Average Mature Trees” has been included as a rough guide to help with identification. An average tree does not exist.

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Lesson Three - Hardwood Tree Identification and Silvics

This lesson introduces the common hardwoods of Nova Scotia.

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Lesson Four - Stand Growth and Development

Introduction
To practice good forest management, woodlot owners must be able to identify the tree species on their woodlot, understand how they grow, and how growth can be influenced.

A tree is made up of roots, a trunk or stem, and a crown. Each of these parts play an important role in the tree’s growth and development. The roots anchor the tree to the ground and absorb moisture and nutrients from the surrounding soil. The trunk supports the crown and is the link between the roots and the leaves for transporting water and nutrients. Water, nutrients, the sun’s energy, and gases from the air combine in the leaves to produce the food needed for survival.

The roots, trunk and branches are made up of the following (Figure 6):

Heartwood
An inactive wood that does not have a role in the production of food for the tree. It gives strength to the roots, trunk and branches.

Sapwood
Made up of xylem tissue, this active wood carries water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves or needles in the crown.

Cambium
The layer of cells where diameter growth occurs. It is a sheath of tissue located under the bark next to the sapwood. The inside layer closest to the center of the tree produces wood. The outside layer produces bark.

Inner bark
Consisting of tissue called phloem, it carries food made in the leaves and needles down to the branches, trunk, and roots.

Outer bark
Protects the tree from injury.

Roots, stems and branches lengthen and thicken as the tree grows. Silviculture treatments can influence the amount and rate of these changes. For example, appropriate use of early thinning can result in a stand growing to harvest size up to 20 years before an untreated stand.

To assist in management planning and in implementing silvicultural treatments, a forest is divided into units called “stands” ( Figure 7).

Stands are groups of trees that show enough similarities in species, age, height, and density to form obvious separate units.

Stands are described using three terms: age, percentage of softwood and hardwood trees, and finally the developmental stage of the stand.

Even-aged stands are groups of trees with maximum age differences of 10 to 20 years. They are established after trees in an area are removed over a short period of time by fire, insect infestations and disease, wind or cutting. Uneven-aged stands are trees with at least three age classes and have a variation in heights and diameters.

Since stands may be comprised of several species in varying amounts, they are further classified by the percentage of hardwoods and softwoods:

Softwood stands contain 76% to 100% softwood trees
Mixedwood stands contain 26% to 75% softwood trees
Hardwood stands contain 25% or less softwood trees

Stands are also classified by stage of development (Figure 8). This is determined based on average height and age of the trees within the stand.

A forest is a complex and dynamic community in which trees grow and develop from seedlings through maturity. A number of physical and biological factors continually influence the growth and development of forests and must be understood before you can begin to practice good forestry.

Although the effect of these factors may be more easily understood when discussed individually (e.g., soils), it is more complicated when all factors are considered together as an ecosystem. Nevertheless, an appreciation of their existence and effect on the forest will help you understand the reasons behind good silvicultural practices.

The following is a list of the major physical and biological factors which affect trees as they grow from the seedling stage maturity:

Physical Factors

Climate
- temperature (average and extreme)
- rainfall (average and extreme)
- wind (average and extreme)
- severity and regularity of damaging storms (for example, hurricanes and sleet storms)

Soils
- structure (loose or compact)
- texture (clay, sand, or gravel)
- fertility
- depth
- drainage
- ground vegetation

Location
- altitude
- slope (%)
- orientation or direction of slope
- exposure

Biological Factors

Silvics of each tree
- reproductive capacity
- shade tolerance
- rooting capacity
- growth potential
- resistance or susceptibility to insects, diseases and windthrow

Stand features
- density
- species composition and distribution

Damaging Agents
- disease
- insects
- mammals
- mechanical

When managing a woodlot, it is important to know which biological factors can be changed and which physical factors cannot.

For example, since the soil cannot be easily changed, the species you plant and/or regeneration you try to encourage must be compatible with the soil type. You could try a number of silvicultural treatments and still not achieve maximum growth if the trees are not suited to the soil.

A Forest Ecosystem Classification guide was published by the Nova Forest Alliance (Keys et al. 2003 )for use in central Nova Scotia. In this guide forest ecosystems are grouped based on tree species, ground vegetation, soil type and other features of the site. This guide allows woodlot owners and forestry professionals to group similar sites together. Once similar sites are identified owners can better address hazards and operational limitations associated with these ecosystems. This classification makes management outcomes more predictable and thus sustainable.

Experience is also very important. Woodlot owners who observe local conditions can provide valuable practical knowledge in addition to general silviculture principles.

Site Capability

The ability of a forest to grow is related directly to physical site factors. Favourable physical factors create better land capability rating and a better response to silvicultural treatments. Land capability is determined by comparing the total age of a healthy dominant tree to its height. Better site qualities produce taller trees at any given age. For example, a 70 year old tree which is 23 metres (75') tall is probably growing on a better site than the same 70 year old tree that is only 16 metres (52') tall.

Sites lower than capability 4 (capable of 4 m3/ha/yr) (0.7 cds/ac/yr) are not generally worth spending a lot of time and money on. The potential of these sites to respond to silvicultural treatments is very low.

Land capabilities are grouped by number. In Nova Scotia, the best is land capability class is 13. With management, this class is capable of producing 13 cubic metres per hectare per year (m3/ha/yr) (2.3 cords/acre/year). The worst is land capability 1, capable of producing only 1 m3/ha/yr (0.2 cds/ac/yr) even under management. Examples of the expected growth rates for different site classes are listed below:

1) A stand growing on a site class 7 takes an average of 7 years to reach a height of 3m (10')

2) A stand growing on a site class 5 takes an average of 10 years to reach a height of 3m (10')

3) A stand growing on a site class 4 takes an average of 15 years to reach a height of 3m (10')

Stand Density and Stocking

In growing from seedling to maturity, trees constantly compete for sunlight, moisture, food, and space. The healthier, vigorous trees on better sites soon overtop their neighbours and become dominant and codominant members of the stand. The remaining trees develop into intermediate or suppressed positions within the stand (Figure 9).

Genetically superior trees and more vigorous species have an advantage and often quickly establish superior height positions in the forest canopy. Inferior trees are at a distinct disadvantage.

Density is usually expressed as number of trees per unit area (hectare or acre). It reflects the degree of crowding of trees in a stand. Stocking is a relative term usually expressed as a percentage, which refers to amount of growing space used by trees. An area with enough trees to use all the available growing space is considered 100% stocked. An area where only half of the available growing space is occupied by trees is 50% stocked.

During stand establishment, thousands of trees may germinate, but that number will decrease through natural mortality as the stand ages. The higher the initial density, the greater the competition, resulting in many trees being eliminated from the stand. At maturity, the available sunlight, moisture, nutrients, and space will be used by fewer, larger trees.

When a tree dies, it creates an opening in the forest canopy. As it decays, nutrients stored in the foliage and wood fibre are released into the soil. In a young stand, the opening is filled by the branches of the surrounding trees. In a mature stand the open space provides an area where regeneration can establish.

Throughout its life, a tree must have enough space to spread its crown and roots in proportion to its size to reach maximum growth. If there are too many trees competing for the same space and the trees will be smaller. If there are not enough trees, the existing trees will develop large limbs and extensive crowns. Much of the growing space will be utilized by undesirable, non-commercial species. This also results in an overall reduction of stand growth.

A species’ ability to survive in a dense stand depends on its height growth and to a greater extent, its tolerance of shade. Tolerant trees are able to survive and grow under various shade conditions. Intolerant trees cannot persist for very long in shade. It is important to consider this when planning silviculture operations. If your objective is to produce a stand of tolerant trees, a shelterwood or selection harvest method should be used rather than a clearcut. Module 2 provides more information on harvesting systems.

Species Composition

Species composition will vary throughout the life of a stand, depending on stand density and age. As stands get older intolerant species generally die and are replaced by more tolerant species which are better able to compete and grow in the reduced sunlight.

Growth

As trees age they go through three major phases of development - immaturity, maturity, and decline. Through each phase, changes occur in the rate of height, diameter and volume growth; stand density, stocking and development, and species composition (Figure 10 A).

Height Growth

Trees grow in height from the terminal bud, if the terminal leader is not damaged. The greatest rate of height growth happens during the immature stage (Figure 10 B). Although a tree will continue to grow in total height, the rate will decrease as the tree matures. The final height that a healthy, vigorous tree reaches depends on the site capability. The better the site the taller a tree will be at a given age.

Diameter Growth

Each year, a tree produces an annual ring made up of a light and dark band of wood. The light band occurs during the spring and early summer. The dark bands are produced in late summer and early fall. These rings occur in the trunk, roots, rootlets, branches and twigs of all trees (Figure 11). Annual rings are very important in forestry since they reflect the history of a tree or stand.

A tree’s age can be determined by counting the rings. The rate of diameter growth throughout a tree’s life can be seen in the various widths of the rings. When a tree is suppressed, the rings are narrow and when the tree is growing well and free of competition, the rings are wide.

The rate of diameter growth is directly related to stocking. Generally, the greater the stocking the slower the rate of diameter growth. Diameter growth is reduced by suppression from the side and from above.

If a tree is released from competition, the rate of diameter growth will normally increase. Constant competition throughout the tree’s life will result in a smaller diameter tree at maturity, regardless of the site capability.

If a tree is suppressed on one side only, the diameter growth will normally be less on the suppressed side. For example, trees along the edge of a field will usually have more diameter growth on the side facing the field, while the forested side will have less.

Because of the competition in a stand, trees of the same age may exhibit a wide variation in diameters. A tree with a large diameter could be the same age or younger than a neighbouring tree with a smaller diameter.

Volume Growth

The rate of volume growth, like height and diameter growth, is generally greater during the early stages of a tree’s development. Since volume growth is dependent upon both height and diameter growth, factors that influence height and diameter will also affect the volume.

Stand volume is directly related to stocking. That is, stand volume will increase as stocking increases (Figure 12) because the site is being more fully utilized.

Manipulation of Stands by Thinning

As mentioned earlier, growth and development of a stand is significantly affected by competition with other trees. In some cases, competition is beneficial; such as in hardwood or white spruce stands where density will minimize excessive limbiness. In dense stands, competition from neighbouring trees slows the growth and development of the stand (Figure 13).

To enhance the growth and development of your woodlot, competition must be adjusted through spacing treatments. Precommercial thinnings are treatments used to achieve desired spacing between trees. With the exception of planting, most silvicultural approaches to stand management involve altering the existing spacing.

Reducing competition by thinning allows the remaining trees to grow to the site’s capability. Thus, more merchantable wood will be produced sooner. The extra space will also allow for the growth of larger trees that will have a higher value, such as sawlogs.

Thinning treatments remove undesirable trees and free the best ones from competition. Undesirable trees are those that are diseased and/or damaged, unwanted species, and ones that are crowding better quality trees. Which trees are undesirable will vary with each situation. Therefore, it is important to always know what type of tree species or forest product you want to encourage on your woodlot. Thinning is covered in more detail in Module 3.

Module 1 - Lesson Four Quiz

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For Further Reading

Atlantic Provinces Economic Council. March 2000. The Economic Impact of the Forest Industry on the Nova Scotia Economy.

Atlantic Provinces Economic Council. January 2003. The Forest Industry in the Nova Scotia Economy (2002 Update).

Burns, R.M. and B.H. Honkala. 1990. Silvics of North America. Vol. 1 Conifers. Agriculture Handbook #654. USDA Forest Service.

Burns, R.M. and B.H. Honkala. 1990. Silvics of North America. Vol. 2 Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook #654. USDA Forest Service.

Canadian Institute of Forestry, 2001. Nova Scotia News - CIF Celebrates National Forest Week.
http://www.cif-ifc.org/

Dansereau, J.P., and P. deMarsh, 2003. A portrait of Canadian Woodlot owners in 2003. Forestry Chronicle. 79(4): 774-779

Farr, K. 2003. The Forests of Canada. Fitzhenry & Whiteside Limited, Markham ON. Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa.

Farrar, J. L. 1995. Trees in Canada. Fitzhenry and Whiteside. Ottawa; Canadian Forest Service.

Forestry Canada. 1992. Silvicultural terms in Canada. Ottawa, ON.

Johnson, R.S. 1986. Forest of Nova Scotia a History. Department of Lands and Forests. Four East Publications. Halifax, NS.

Keys, K.P. Neily, E. Quigley and B. Stewart. 2003. Forest Ecosystem Classification of Nova Scotia’s Model Forest. Nova Forest Alliance. Stewiacke, NS.

Natural Resources Canada. 2004. The State of Canada’s Forests 2003-2004. Ottawa, ON.

Nova Forest Alliance. Forest Ecosystem Classification of Nova Scotia’s Model Forest. Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources

Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources. 1997. Toward Sustainable Forestry: A Position Paper. Working Paper 1997-01.

Natural Resource Education Centre. Forest Sustainablity - A Grade 10 Science Project. Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources.

Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources. 2000a. Sustaining Our Wood Supply Through Increased Silviculture. Information Leaflet FOR-3.

Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources. 2000b. Ten Year Periodic Annual Increment for Nova Scotia Permanent Forest Inventory Plots 1980-85 to 1990-95. Report FOR 2000-2.

Robertson, R.G., R.W. Young and J.C. Lees. 1991. Hardwood Thinning Manual. Department of Lands and Forests.

Robertson, R.G., R.W. Young. 1990. Merchantable Thinning Manual - Softwoods. Department of Lands and Forests.

Saunders, G.L. 1995. Trees Of Nova Scotia. Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources.

Townsend, P. 2004. Nova Scotia Forest Inventory, Based on Permanent Sample Plots Measured between 1999 and 2003. Report FOR2004-03. Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources.

Wellstead A., P.D. Brown. 1995. The 1993 Nova Scotia Woodlot Owner Survey Executive Summary. Department of Natural Resources.

Wilson, B.F. 1970. The Growing Tree. University of Massachusetts Press

Glossary of Key Terms - Module 1

ACADIAN FOREST: The Acadian Forest is one of 12 forest regions in Canada. It is characterized by red spruce, balsam fir, maple and yellow birch.

ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION: Establishing a forest by direct seeding and/or planting.

BASAL AREA: The area in square meters (square feet) of the cross section of the trunk of a tree at breast height. Most commonly used as an indicator of stand density and is expressed as square metres/hectare (square feet/acre).

BIODIVERSITY: The variety of life in all its forms, levels and combinations. Includes ecosystem diversity, species diversity and genetic diversity.

BIOLOGICAL: Characteristics of living organisms which influence their growth and health.

BLOWDOWN: Trees uprooted by high winds, commonly called windthrow.

BREAST HEIGHT: The standard height, a distance 1.3 meters (4.5') above ground level, where the diameter of a standing tree is measured.

BUDS: Undeveloped shoot, leaf, or flower enclosed in protective scales. Terminal buds are located at the end of a twig. Lateral buds are located below the terminal bud and along the sides of the twig.

CANOPY: Cover of branches and foliage formed by tree crowns

CLEARCUT: The removal of all or most merchantable trees from an area.

CODOMINANT: Trees with crowns in the general level of the canopy which receive full light from above, but comparatively little from the side. Trees have medium-sized crowns.

CONES: The fruiting bodies of coniferous trees which produce the seed.

CONIFEROUS TREES: Commonly called softwood or evergreen, trees that have cones and keep their needles throughout the winter, except for tamarack.

DECIDUOUS: Commonly referred to as hardwoods or broad leaf trees, in most cases, they lose their leaves in the fall.

DENSITY (STAND): A measurement of the stand in terms of square metres of basal area, number of trees, or volume per hectare. It reflects the degree of crowding of stems within the stand. Expressed as basal area, it is a measurement of the portion of an area occupied by trees at breast height. Expressed as percentage of crown closure, it is an estimate of the extent the site is occupied.

DISTRIBUTION: The arrangement of stand characteristics such as height, age, diameter and species.

DOMINANT: Trees with crowns extending above the general level of the canopy and receiving full light from above and partial light from the sides. They are larger than the average trees of the stand with well developed crowns.

DUFF: The shallow layer of organic soil and litter of the forest floor which lies over the general mineral soil.

ECOSYSTEM: An ecosystem consists of a dynamic set of living organisms (plants, animals and microorganisms) all interacting among themselves and with the environment in which they live (soil, climate, water and light).

EVEN-AGED STAND: A stand of trees with maximum age differences of 10-20 years and of approximately the same height.

FOREST: A group or community of trees and plants divided up into forest stands.

FOREST ECOLOGY: The relationship between forest organisms (plants and animals) and their environment.

GENETIC: The inherent physiology and development of living organisms as determined by the genes.

GERMINATION: The growth process of a mature seed, characterized by the emergence of a stem and root.

GROUND VEGETATION: Non-woody vegetation under 1.2 metres (4') in heigh.

HIGH-GRADING: Harvesting the biggest, best and most profitable trees and leaving the less desirable trees. May result in the growth of a poor quality stand. Also called selective harvesting.

HUMUS: Black or brown material found in soil, formed by partial decomposition of plant or animal material (organic matter).

IMMATURE STAND: A stand of young trees past the regeneration stage usually showing good health and vigor.

INTERMEDIATE: Trees with crowns extending into canopy formed by dominant and codominant trees which receive a little light from above, but not from the sides.

INTOLERANT: The inability of a tree to maintain health and vigor under shade. Intolerant trees require full sunlight to maintain vigorous growth. Referred to as pioneer species.

LATERAL ROOTS: Relatively shallow roots which spread outward from the tree parallel to the ground.

LAYERING: A method of reproduction in which living lower branches come in contact with moist ground or are covered with litter and produce roots. These branches eventually grow into trees separate from the parent tree. It is a common reproduction method of black spruce.

LEADER: the main shoot of a tree. Will form the trunk as the tree grows

LOAM: A loose soil composed of clay, sand, and organic matter, often highly fertile.

LITTER: The top layer of debris (fallen leaves, needles, flowers, bark...) on the forest floor.

MATURE STAND: A trees is considered mature when height, diameter and volume growth level off. Different species mature at different ages.

MINERAL SOIL: Soil containing a high percentage of inorganic material such as rock, sand, clay, and silt.

NATURAL REGENERATION: Renewal of trees by natural seeding, sprouting, suckering, or layering.

ORGANIC SOIL: Soil containing a high percentage of dead or decaying plant matter (also called organic material) from fallen material such as needles and leaves, slash and blowdown.

PIONEER SPECIES: The first species to grow following a natural disturbance like fire or a harvest. These species are shade intolerant and normally short-lived. Common pioneer tree species in Nova Scotia are pin cherry, trembling aspen and red maple.

PRECOMMERCIAL THINNING: A spacing treatment carried out in young naturally regenerated stands which removes competition and concentrates growth on desired trees.

PURE STAND: A stand with at least 80% of the trees in the main canopy are of a single species.

REGENERATION: The reforestation or reproduction of the forest by either natural seeding or artificial means. Generally refers to established seedlings.

RESIDUAL TREES: Scattered, standing trees left by harvesting in an area which has undergone extensive harvesting.

ROTATION: The period of years to establish and grow timber crops to a specified condition of maturity from regeneration to final harvest.

SELECTION HARVEST: The removal of the trees of all sizes or a range of sizes, either as single, scattered individuals or in small groups as relatively short intervals repeated indefinitely. The continuous establishment of new trees and uneven-aged stands is encouraged.

SELECTIVE HARVESTING: Harvesting the biggest, best and most profitable trees and leaving the less desirable trees. Also called high grading.

SHADE TOLERANCE: Shade tolerance refers to a tree’s ability to survive and grow in shaded conditions

SHELTERWOOD CUT: The removal of the mature timber in a series of cuttings which extend over a relatively short portion of the rotation. The establishment of Even-aged reproduction is encouraged under the partial shade of seed trees.

SITE CAPABILITY: An expression of a particular area’s ability to support forest growth. Expressed as volume/area/year. The better capability, the greater the rate of height and growth volume.

SPECIES: A category of individuals thought of as a group because of common qualities and characteristics.

SPROUTING: A form of natural regeneration that occurs when the main stem is removed. Dormant buds in the stump begin to grow into new shoots (for example red maple).

STAND: A group of trees, with similarities in species composition, height/diameter distribution, and age composition.

STAND STRUCTURE: The distribution of tree species and their age, height, species composition, diameter, and density of a specific area.

STOCKING: A relative term usually expressed as a percentage which refers to the number of trees that occur in a given area. An area that supports sufficient trees to optimally use all the available growing space is said to be 100% stocked. An area where only half of the available growing space is occupied by trees is said to be 50% stocked.

STUMPAGE: The price paid to the owner of standing timber, before the trees are harvested.

SUCKERING: Sprouting up from the roots, usually after a disturbance. Occurs in species with shallow rooted hardwoods such as red maples, beech and trembling aspen.

SUPPRESSED: Trees below general level of the canopy receiving no light either from the sides or above.

TAP ROOT: A deep root growing down into the ground which helps anchor the tree and maintain a water supply in dry soils.

TOLERANCE / TOLERANT: The ability of a tree to regenerate and maintain health and vigor under shaded conditions. Very tolerant tree species can grow in dense shade.

UNEVEN-AGED STAND: A stand trees with considerable age differences representing at least three age classes. Uneven-aged stands contain large, older trees as well as immature trees.

WINDTHROW: Tree(s) uprooted by wind, commonly called blowdown.

Downloads

As the Home Study modules become available copies will be made available for download. At this time only the Introduction - Getting More from your Woodlot, Module 2 and 9 are available in French.

All modules are currently available in English and some in French	Adobe Acrobat Acrobate D'Adobe
Principles of Forest Stewardship	Download
Introduction: Getting More From Your Woodlot	English Francais
Module 1: Introduction to Silviculture	Download
Module 2: Harvesting Systems	English Francais
Module 3: Thinning for Value	Download
Module 4: Woodlots and Wildlife	Download
Module 5: Stand Establishment	Download
Module 6: Chainsaw Use and Safety	Download
Module 7: Woodlot Ecology	Download
Module 8: Wood Utilization and Technology	Download
Module 9: Woodlot Recreation	English Francais
Module 10A: Managing Woodlot Finances:Planning and Investment Guide	Download
Module 10B: Introduction to Woodlot: Income Tax and Estate Planning	Download
Module 11: Roads & Trails: Planning it Right from the Start	Download
Module 12: Small Scale Harvesting Equipment	Download
Module 13: Non Timber Forest Products: Growing Opportunities	Download