Lesson Two - Softwood Tree Identification and Silvics

To practice silviculture in Nova Scotia it is essential to recognize common trees. Once a tree is identified you can understand its rooting habit, windfirmness, associated species, favored growing sites and shade tolerance. With this information you can make an informed decision about the trees on your woodlot. For more information about common trees in Nova Scotia consult Trees of Nova Scotia (Saunders, 1995).

Lesson Two and Three briefly discuss soil types and characteristics. More information on soils can be found in Module 7 (Woodlot Ecology). For help in determining the type of soil on your woodlot consult the Forest Ecosystem Classification Guide published by the Nova Forest Alliance (Keys et al. 2003) listed in the ‘Further Reading section of this module.

This lesson presents the silvics and field identification characteristics of softwood trees in Nova Scotia. The section entitled “Average Mature Trees” has been included as a rough guide to help with identification. An average tree does not exist.

Silvics of Balsam Fir

SILVICS OF BALSAM FIR
(Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.)

Common names:
- fir, balsam, Canada balsam

Field identification aids:
- only native softwood with resin blisters on the bark that exude a sticky resin
- typical Christmas tree smell (balsam)
- flat needle does not roll easily between fingers
- tip of needle is blunt
- needles are dark, shiny green above with two white lines underneath
- Shoots are soft when squeezed
- only native conifer with upright cones

Average mature tree:
- 40 to 50 years old
- 12 m to 18 m (40' to 60') tall
- 20 cm to 36 cm (8" to 14") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 150 years

Shade Tolerance:
- very tolerant

Rooting:
- shallow, wide-spreading roots

Windfirmness:
- not windfirm

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed
- tree may begin to produce seed as early as 15 years old with full crop production after 30 years
- good crops can be expected every 2 to 4 years
- best seed germination occurs on moist mineral soils or humus

Growing sites:
- adaptable to a variety of soils
- best growth on moist and well-drained sites
Associated Species:
- forms pure stands on poorly-drained sites
- grows in association with almost all native trees
- most commonly found with spruces, hemlock, birch and aspen.

Principal damaging agents:
- spruce budworm, balsam woolly adelgid, white tussock moth, hemlock looper, balsam fir sawfly, porcupines

Notes:
- balsam fir comprises 17.9% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- principal Christmas tree species due to high needle retention
- after about 40 years old, fir tends to develop butt rot that reduces its value as pulpwood and logs
- often regenerates in abundance after clearcutting

Quick ID:
Balsam fir has soft needles 'Fir is Friendly'

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Silvics of Black Spruce

SILVICS OF BLACK SPRUCE
(Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P.)

Common names:
- bog spruce, swamp spruce, red spruce

Field identification aids:
- usually the only spruce growing in bogs or swamps
- grey-green to blue-green, blunt-pointed, four-cornered needles that can roll between your fingers
- usually the only spruce growing in bogs or swamps
- inner bark is olive green
- retains spherical brown cones for many years
- forms a definite clump of short branches at tip of crown. In older trees this clump carries numerous old cones
- brownish, hairy twigs; otherwise quite similar to those of red spruce

Average mature tree:
- 70 to 90 years old
- 9 m to 15 m (30' to 50') tall
- 15 cm to 25 cm (6" to 10") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 200 years

Shade Tolerance:
- medium

Rooting:
- shallow, spreading root system

Windfirmness:
- shallow rooted and easily blown over

Reproduction:
- can reproduce through seed or by layering
- heavy cone drops every 4 years

Growing sites:
- ranges from wet to well drained sites
- best growth is on moist, well-drained loamy soils
- usually grows on poorly-drained soils

Associated species:
- white spruce and balsam fir on good sites
- on poor sites usually grows in pure stands or associated with tamarack

Principal damaging agents:
- spruce budworm, eastern dwarf mistletoe, European spruce sawfly

Notes:
- black spruce comprises 3.7 % of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- interbreeds easily with red spruce and they are difficult to tell apart
- has sealed cones that require heat to open
- first conifer to establish after a fire

Quick ID:
Black spruce has a clump of short branches on top

 

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Silvics of Eastern Hemlock

SILVICS OF EASTERN HEMLOCK
(Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.)

Common names:
- tree juniper, white hemlock

Field identification aids:
- needles are small, dark shiny green, blunt tipped, with two white lines underneath
- bark is purplish-brown when scraped

Average mature tree:
- 100 to 140 years old
- 18 m to 21 m (60' to 70') tall
- 60 cm to 122 cm (24" to 48") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 600 years

Shade tolerance:
- very tolerant

Rooting:
- wide-spreading, shallow root system

Windfirmness:
- moderately windfirm

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed
- begins to produce seed as early as 20 with full production after 50 years
- good cone crop every 2 to 3 years
- best germination is on shaded cool sites

Growing sites:
- grows on a wide range of soils, as long as it is shaded and cool

Associated species:
- white pine, red spruce, yellow birch, sugar maple
- occasionally occurs in pure stands
Principal damaging agents:
- hemlock looper, porcupines, and windstorms
- wind causes cracks between growth rings in larger trees, this may increase heart rot

Notes:
- hemlock comprises 2.8% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- bark is often riddled with woodpecker holes
- splits easily, but is durable when used in large dimensions

Quick ID:
Hemlock needles are on short stalks that come off with the needle

 

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Silvics of Jack Pine

SILVICS OF JACK PINE
(Pinus banksiana Lamb.)

Common names:
- princess pine, scrub pine, grey pine

Field identification aids:
- needles are light yellow-green, two per cluster forming a “V”
- cones point toward end of branch
- cones are strongly curved
- retains cones for years, even after tree is cut
- dead branches remain on tree giving it a scraggy appearance

Average mature tree:
- 50 to 60 years old
- 12 m to 20 m (40' to 67') tall
- 20 cm to 30 cm (8" to 12") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 150 years

Shade Tolerance:
- intolerant

Rooting:
- moderately deep and wide-spreading
- produces a tap root on deep porous soils

Windfirmness:
- windfirm, but prone to mechanical breakage

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed
- will begin to produce seed as early as 10 years with full production at 40 years

Growing sites:
- range from dry to poorly-drained soils
- best growth is on sandy, well-drained soils

Associated species:
- black spruce, white birch and aspen
- can be found in pure stands

Principal damaging agents:
- porcupines

Notes:
- jack pine comprises less than 1% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- generally used for railway ties, poles and fuelwood
- often establishes after a fire, particularly on poor sites

Quick ID:
Jack pine is the only native pine with two short needles. It also has strongly curved cones

 

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Silvics of Red Pine

SILVICS OF RED PINE
(Pinus resinosa Ait.)

Common names:
- Norway pine, bull pine

Field identification aids:
- has the longest needles of pines with two needles per cluster
- needles break in two when bent
- bark on older trees breaks off in flat red-brown plates

Average mature tree:
- 60 to 70 years old
- 18 m to 25 m (60' to 80') tall
- 30 cm to 60 cm (12" to 24") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 200 years

Shade Tolerance:
- intolerant

Rooting:
- moderately deep and wide-spreading

Windfirmness:
- moderate to good depending on soil depth

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed
- tree may begin to produce seed at 20 with full production after 50 years
- good seed crop every 3-7 years, with a bumper crop every 10-12 years
- germination best on moist humus mineral mixture
- poor germination on heavy litter

Growing sites:
- will grow on soils too poor for white pine
- best growth is on well-drained sandy soils
Associated species:
- white pine and jack pine
- occasionally grows in pure stands

Principal damaging agents:
- Sirococcus shoot blight, European pine shoot moth
- prone to mechanical breakage and browsing from white tail deer

Notes:
- red pine comprises less than 0.5% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- sturdy, rot resistant wood makes it ideal for power poles and wharf and bridge pilings

Quick ID:
only native pine with 2 long needles

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Silvics of Red Spruce

SILVICS OF RED SPRUCE
(Picea rubens Sarg.)

Common names:
-  yellow spruce, Maritime spruce

Field identification aids:
- bright yellow-green, blunt, four-cornered needles that can roll between your fingers (needles are usually longer than those on black spruce)
- reddish bark on young trees orange-brown and slightly hairy twigs
- Large broad crown, with right angled branches that curve upward near the ends
- red and black spruce interbreed and are often difficult to tell apart

Average mature tree:
-  80 to 100 years old
-  21 m to 26 m (70' to 86') tall
-  30 cm to 60 cm (12" to 24") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span
-  200 - 400 years

Shade tolerance:
-  very tolerant

Rooting:
-  shallow and widespread

Windfirmness:
-  only moderately windfirm on most Nova Scotian sites, susceptible to wind damage

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed
- tree may begin to produce seed when 20 to 30 years old, with full crop production usually after 45 years
- good cone crops every 3 to 8 years
- best germination occurs on a moist mixture of mineral soil and humus
- poor germination on thick duff

Growing sites:
-  range from well-drained to poorly drained
-  best growth is on well -drained, acidic sandy soil
-  usually found on moderately drained soils

Associated species:
- black spruce, balsam fir, tamarack, and red maple on poorly drained sites
- sugar maple, yellow birch, beech, and balsam fir on well drained sites
- often found in pure stands

Principle damaging agents:
-  spruce budworm, spruce bark beetle, brown spruce longhorn beetle, porcupines

Notes:
- red spruce comprise 22.8% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- the most valuable lumber and pulpwood species in Nova Scotia
-  Nova Scotia’s provincial tree

Quick ID:
Red spruce branches curve upwards

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Silvics of Tamarack

SILVICS OF TAMARACK
(Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch.)

Common names:
- larch, juniper (not a true juniper), hackmatack

Field identification aids:
- has smallest cone of native conifers
- many needles in a cluster
- soft, blue-green needles that turn yellow in autumn

Average mature tree:
- 50 to 70 years old
- 12 m to 20 m (40' to 67') tall
- 30 cm to 60 cm (12" to 24") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 150 years

Shade tolerance:
- very intolerant

Rooting:
- shallow and wide-spreading

Windfirmness:
- moderately windfirm

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed
- occasionally reproduces by layering
- will bear seed as early as 12 years old with full production after 40 years
- best germination on moist mineral or organic soil with light cover
- good cone crop every 3 to 6 years

Growing sites:
- range from upland sites to bogs
- best growth is on well-drained soils with very little clay (light soils)
- usually found on wet sites
Associated species:
- black spruce and red maple on poor sites
- on better sites occurs with trembling aspen, white birch and balsam fir

Principal damaging agents:
- larch sawfly, larch casebearer, white-marked tussock moth, and porcupines

Notes:
- tamarack comprises 1.7% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- fastest growing softwood on a good site
- characteristic tree of swamps and bogs
- very durable for outdoor projects
 

Quick ID:
Tamarack losses its needles in the autumn

 

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Silvics of White Pine

SILVICS OF WHITE PINE
(Pinus strobus L.)

Common names:
- eastern white pine, soft pine, pattern pine, yellow pine, majestic pine

Field identification aids:
- only native five-needled pine
- needles are blue-green, long and soft to touch
- cigar shaped cones that are longer than those of other native pines

Average mature tree:
- 100 to 120 years old
- 24 m to 30 m (80' to 100') tall
- 601 cm to 90 cm (24" to 36") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 200 - 450 years

Shade Tolerance:
- medium

Rooting:
- moderately deep, wide-spreading root system
- will produce a token tap root where soil permits

Windfirmness:
- moderately windfirm, more likely to break off than uproot

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seeding
- may produce seed as young as 20 with full crop production at 50 years
- good seed crop production every 3 to 5 years
- best germination occurs on exposed moist sandy loam
- litter is a poor seed bed for white pine

Growing sites:
- range from dry rocky sites to poorly drained sites
- best growth is on moist, loamy sands
Associated species:
- on poorly drained soils with black spruce and larch
- jack pine and red pine on dry sites
- hemlock, red spruce, yellow birch and sugar maple on well drained sites

Principal damaging agents:
- white pine blister rust, white pine weevil, redheaded pine sawfly, white-tailed deer

Notes:
- white pine comprises 8.3% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- many of the large trees standing above the rest in the forest are residual white pine
- the tallest and most stately of the eastern softwoods
- highly prized for interior finish
- straight grained, even textured, durable, light weight wood that takes nails, planing and painting well

Quick ID:
W-H-I-T-E = 5 needles on white pine

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Silvics of White Spruce

SILVICS OF WHITE SPRUCE
Picea glauca (Moench) Voss)

Common names:
- pasture spruce, skunk spruce, cat spruce

Field identification aids:
- blue-green, sharp-pointed, four-cornered needles that can roll between your fingers
- crushed needles have a rank odour similar to cat urine
- hairless twigs
- occurs commonly in old fields
- has thick branches that extend to ground
- inside bark is silvery white

Average mature tree:
- 50 to 60 years old
- 18 m to 24 m (70' to 80') tall
- 30 cm to 60 cm (12" to 24") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 200 years

Shade tolerance:
- intolerant

Rooting:
- shallow and wide-spreading

Windfirmness:
- moderately windfirm on most Nova Scotian sites

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seeds
- tree may begin to produce seed when approximately 30 years old, with full production around 60 years
- good seed crop production every 2 to 6 years
- best seed germination occurs on well to moderately-drained soil

Associated species:
- black spruce and balsam fir on poorly-drained sites
- white birch and trembling aspen on well-drained sites

Growing sites:
- range from well drained to moderately-drained soils
- optimum growth is on moist, well-drained, sandy soils
- usually found on moderately-drained sandy loams

Principal damaging agents:
- spruce budworm, spruce beetle, eastern dwarf mistletoe, and porcupines

Notes:
- white spruce comprises 7.2% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- commonly found on old pasture land and has thick live branches that extend to the ground
- fastest growing spruce native to Nova Scotia
- usually selected as the Christmas tree sent to Boston each year, but has an unpleasant odour and needles drop quickly once cut

Quick ID:
White spruce has sharp needles 'Spruce is Sharp'

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