Lesson Three - Hardwood Tree Identification and Silvics

This lesson introduces the common hardwoods of Nova Scotia.

Silvics of Beech

SILVICS OF BEECH
(Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.)

Common names:
- American beech

Field identification aids:
- beech retain their leaves through most of the fall and early winter
- buds are long with sharp ends

Average mature tree:
- 60 to 80 years old
- 12 m to 21 m (40' to 70') tall
- 20 cm to 60 cm (8" to 24") in diameter at breast height

Shade tolerance:
- very tolerant

Windfirmness:
- moderately windfirm

Rooting:
- shallow, wide spreading lateral roots

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed, stump sprouting, or suckering from exposed roots
- tree may begin to produce seed when 40 years old, with full crop production after 60 years
- good seed crop produced every 2 to 3 years
- best seed germination occurs on moist humus or mineral soil
- poor seed germination on wet sites

Growing sites:
- range from moderately drained to well-drained
- best growth on well-drained loam sites

Associated species:
- red maple, sugar maple, yellow birch, red spruce, and hemlock on well drained sites
- rarely found in pure stands

Principal damaging agent:
- beech bark disease (insect-fungal partnership)

Notes:
- comprises 1.1% of merchantable volume of Nova Scotia forests
- a decrease in quality of beech due to heavy damage sustained by beech bark disease.
- used primarily for fuelwood

Quick ID:
The trunk and branches of beech are often gnarled and crooked from beach bark disease

 

 
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Silvics of Grey Birch

SILVICS OF GREY BIRCH
(Betula populifolia Marsh.)

Common names:
- wire birch, white birch

Field identification aids:
- triangular leaves
- warty, wire-like twigs
- tight, non-peeling, greyish bark

Average mature tree:
- 30 to 50 years old
- 6 m to 11 m (20' to 35') tall
- 8 cm to 12 cm (3" to 5") in diameter at breast height

Shade tolerance:
- intolerant

Rooting:
- shallow laterals, no tap root produced

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed or stump sprouting
- full seed crop production after 30 years, good seed crop every year
- best germination occurs on moist, mineral soil

Growing sites:
- range from dry to poorly-drained, best growth on well-drained sites
- usually found on recent clearcuts, burnt areas, and old fields

Associated species:
- alders and larch on poorly drained sites
- white birch, pin cherry and aspen on well drained sites
- often grows with red spruce
- occasionally found in pure stands

Principal damaging agents:
- nectria canker, birch leaf skeletonizer, birch sawfly, bronze birch borer

Notes:
- not a commercial species, but can be used for fuelwood

Quick ID:
Grey birch has black, triangular markings where branches join the trunk

 
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Silvics of Largetooth Aspen

SILVICS OF LARGETOOTH ASPEN
(Populus grandidentata Michx.)

Common names:
- aspen, poplar, bigtooth aspen

Field identification aids:
- large teeth around the entire edge of leaf
- smooth green bark when immature; dark grey and furrowed when older

Average mature tree:
- 40 to 60 years old
- 12 m to 18 m (40' to 60') tall
- 30 cm to 48 cm (12" to 18") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 60 years

Shade tolerance:
- very intolerant

Rooting:
- shallow spreading lateral roots

Windfirmness:
- not wind firm

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed, sprouting, and by suckering of roots
- tree may begin to produce seed as early as 20 years old, with full crop production after 30 years
- good seed crop every 4 to 5 years
- best seed germination occurs on moist mineral soil under full sunlight

Growing sites:
- range from moderately drained to dry
- best growth on well-drained loam soils
- usually found on recent cutovers and burned sites

Associated species:
- trembling aspen, white birch, grey birch, pin cherry, white spruce, and balsam fir on well drained soils
- occasionally found in pure stands

Principal damaging agents:
- hypoxylon canker, forest tent caterpillar, satin worm

Notes:
- largetooth aspen comprises 1.2% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- short-lived tree that is capable of rapid growth on favorable sites
- wood can be used for pulpwood, pallets, and fuelwood

 

 
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Silvics of Pin Cherry

SILVICS OF PIN CHERRY
(Prunus pensylvanica L.F.)

Common names:
- fire cherry, hay cherry, red cherry, bird cherry

Field identification aids:
- small tree that rarely exceeds 8 m (25') tall
- bark of young cherry resembles that of young birch sapling
- bark of older cherry is dotted with light brown markings
- buds smell like almonds when crushed
- berry is sour tasting

Average mature tree:
- 20 to 30 years old
- 3 m to 8 m (10' to 25') tall
- 10 cm to 15 cm (4" to 6") in diameter at breast height

Shade tolerance:
- very intolerant

Rooting:
- moderately deep and wide-spreading

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed
- seed is heavy and is dispersed by birds
- seed remains viable in the soil for long periods

Growing sites:
- occurs on burned areas, along rivers, and fence rows
- prefers sandy soil
- cutovers

Associated species:
- white and grey birch, trembling aspen, and alder

Principal damaging agent:
- black knot fungus

Notes:
- pin cherry is not a commercial species
- favorite food for birds
- twigs and leaves contain cyanic acid and are poisonous
- a pioneer species

Quick ID:
Pin cherry has black wart like cankers from black knot fungus

 
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Silvics of Red Maple

SILVICS OF RED MAPLE
(Acer rubrum L.)

Common names:
- soft maple, white maple, swamp maple

Field identification aids:
- sharp corner on leaf margin between lobes
- twigs are a deep red, often with branching perpendicular to main branch
- blunt buds (sugar maple buds are smaller and sharp)

Average mature tree:
- 50 to 60 years old
- 18 m to 22 m (60' to 70') tall
- 30 cm to 46 com (12" to 18") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 100 years

Shade tolerance:
- medium

Rooting:
- shallow, wide-spreading lateral roots, occasionally with a small tap root

Windfirmness:
- moderately windfirm

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed, stump sprouting, and suckering
- tree may begin to produce seed when 30 years old, with full crop production after 40 years
- good seed crop production almost every year
- best germination on a moist mineral soil with light leaf cover

Growing sites:
- range from poorly-drained to dry upland site
- best growth is on well-drained sites
- usually grows on moderately-drained soils, but are very common around swamps

Associated species:
- black spruce and balsam fir on poorly drained sites
- balsam fir , red spruce and yellow birch on well drained sites
- rarely found in pure stands

Principal damaging agents:
- gypsy moth, forest tent caterpillar, fall cankerworm, maple leaf cutter
- deer, moose and rabbit browsing

Notes:
- red maple comprises 14.9% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia forests - an increasing component of mixedwood stands due to regular seed production, ease of sprouting, medium tolerance, and continued partial cutting
- branches are prone to breakage during winter storms
- saplings are split and used to make baskets
- can be used to produce maple syrup

Quick ID:
The leaf margins have many teeth 'Red is Rough'

 
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Silvics of Red Oak

SILVICS OF RED OAK
(Quercus rubra L. )

Common names:
- oak, northern red oak

Field identification aids:
- only oak native to Nova Scotia
- dark green leaves with 7 to 11 bristle-tipped lobes
- large, sturdy tree that bears acorns
- cluster of buds at top of twig

Average mature tree:
- 70 to 90 years old
- 15 m to 21 m (50' to 70') tall
- 30 cm to 75 cm (12" to 30") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 200 - 300 years

Shade tolerance:
- medium

Rooting:
- deep spreading lateral roots with a tap root

Windfirmness:
- good windfirmness on average sites

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed or stump sprouting
- tree may begin to produce by seed when 25 years old, with full crop production after 50 years
- good seed crop production every 2 to 5 years
- best seed germination occurs on moist soil covered by litter
- poor germination on dry or exposed soil

Growing sites:
- range from deep stone free to shallow, rocky sites
- best growth is on fine textured soils with a high water table

Associated species:
- aspen, white birch and red maple on poor sites
- sugar maple, yellow birch, white ash, red spruce, red pine, and white pine on good sites
- can occur in pure stands, especially in Queens County

Principal damaging agents:
- gypsy moth, oak leaf-shredder, fall cankerworm, leaf skeletonizer

Notes:
- red oak comprises 0.9% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- wood used for flooring, interior finish and furniture

 
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Silvics of Sugar Maple

SILVICS OF SUGAR MAPLE
(Acer saccharum Marsh.)

Common names:
- rock maple, hard maple

Field identification aids:
- new shoots are light brown or rust colored (red maple shoots are dark red)
- buds are opposite and sharp pointed (red maple has blunt buds that are much larger)
- leaf edge has fewer teeth than red maple leaves
- graceful branching (red maple branching is more irregular)

Average mature tree:
- 100 to 120 years old
- 24 m to 27 m (80' to 90') tall
- 30 cm to 60 cm (12" to 24") in diameter at
breast height

Maximum life span:
- 200 - 300 years

Shade tolerance:
- tolerant

Rooting:
- deep and wide-spreading

Windfirmness:
- windfirm

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed, stump sprouting and to some extent root suckering
- tree may begin to produce seed when 40 to 60 years old, with full crop production after 70 to 100 years
- good seed crop production every 2 to 5 years
- best seed germination occurs on moist, mineral humus mixture
- has the unique ability to reproduce on undisturbed forest litter

Growing sites:
- range from well-drained to dry
- best growth is on deep fertile, well-drained moist loam soil
- usually found on well-drained upland soils

Associated species:
- usually found with beech, yellow birch, and red spruce on good sites
- occasionally found in pure stands

Principal damaging agents:
- sugar maple borer, gypsy moth, forest tent caterpillar, and fall cankerworm

Notes:
- sugar maple comprises 4.6% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- young shoots are heavily-browsed by deer
- best tree for producing maple syrup
- wood is excellent for flooring, furniture, interior finishing, veneers, sporting goods, and musical instruments
- a majestic shade tree

Quick ID:
The leaf margin between lobes is smooth ' Sugar is Smooth'

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Silvics of Trembling Aspen

SILVICS OF TREMBLING ASPEN
(Populus tremuloides Michx.)

Common names:
- aspen, poplar, popple, quaking aspen

Field identification aids:
- finely serrated leaf margin
- leaves turn yellow in fall
- leaf stem is often longer than the leaf itself
- bark on younger trees is smooth, pale green, but becomes grey and furrowed with age

Average mature tree:
- 40 to 60 years old
- 12 m to 18 m (40' to 60') tall
- 25 cm to 40 cm (10" to 16") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 80-90 years

Shade tolerance:
- very intolerant

Rooting:
- shallow, lateral roots

Windfirmness:
- commonly uprooted

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed, sprouting, and suckering of roots
- tree may begin to produce seed when 20 years old, with full crop production after 30 years
- full seed crop production every 4 to 5 years
- best seed germination occurs on a moist mineral soil

Growing sites:
- range from dry rock outcrops to bogs
- best growth on well drained moist loam soil
- usually found on cutover and burned sites

Associated species:
- largetooth aspen, white spruce, balsam fir, white birch, and red spruce on well-drained sites
- often found in pure stands

Principal damaging agents:
- hypoxylon canker, forest tent caterpillar, satin moth

Notes:
- trembling aspen comprise 2.1% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- beaver often use aspen for food and shelter
- trembling aspen is the fastest growing hardwood in Nova Scotia
- has limited use for pulpwood and fuelwood

Quick ID:
Trembling aspen leaves tremble in slight wind

 

 
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Silvics of White Ash

SILVICS OF WHITE ASH
(Fraxinus americana L.)

Common names:
- ash, American ash

Field identification aids:
- compound leaves, with five to nine smooth, sparsely toothed leaflets
- tree is usually straight, with a cylindrical trunk
- buds are opposite (maples are the only other species with opposite buds)
- first set of lateral buds touch the terminal bud

Average mature tree:
- 60 to 80 years
- 18 m to 21 m (60' to 70') tall
- 45 cm to 75cm (18" to 30") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 200 years

Shade tolerance:
- medium
- can withstand moderate shade in youth, but requires more sunlight as it matures

Rooting:
- wide-spreading lateral roots will grow deep if the soil conditions permit

Windfirmness:
- windfirm

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed or stump sprouting
- tree may begin to produce seed when 20 to 30 years old, with good crop production after 40 to 50 years
- good seed crop production almost every year
- germination is best under full sunlight on a moist, mineral soil

Growing sites:
- range from moderately drained to well-drained
- grows best on deep, moist soils

Associated species:
- beech, white birch, yellow birch, sugar maple, and hemlock on well-drained sites

Principal damaging agents:
- anthracnose, forest tent caterpillar and ash rust causes distortion of leaves and tree form (alternate hosts of this rust are marsh and cord grasses)

Notes:
- white ash comprises 0.7% of the merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- highly prized for its strong, shock resistant wood which makes excellent tool handles and sporting goods

Quick ID:
White ash has bark with very deep furrows

 
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Silvics of White Birch

SILVICS OF WHITE BIRCH
(Betula papyrifera Marsh.)

Common names:
- paper birch, canoe birch, silver birch

Field identification aids:
- very few branches below the crown on a mature tree
- leaves are smooth and dark green above paler and slightly hairy below

Average mature tree:
- 60 to 70 years old
- 15 m to 21 m (50' to 70") tall
- 25 cm to 60 cm (10" to 24") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 60-75 years

Shade tolerance:
- intolerant

Rooting:
- deep, spreading lateral roots

Windfirmness:
- only moderately windfirm

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed or stump sprouting
- tree may begin to produce seed when 15 years old, with full crop production after 40 to 70 years
- generally a good seed crop is produced every year
- best seed bed is moist mineral soil

Growing sites:
- range from moderately-drained to dry sites
- best growth on well-drained, sandy loam

Associated species:
- aspen, pin cherry and grey birch on recent clearcuts and burned sites
- occasionally grows in pure stands

Principal Damaging Agents:
- nectria canker, birch leaf skeletonizer, birch sawfly, bronze birch borer
- birch dieback causes some mortality

Notes:
- white birch comprises 2.8% of the
merchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- tree can be damaged or killed if the bark is peeled off
- fast growing, short-lived tree
- used for turning, pulpwood, and fuelwood

Quick ID:
White birch has white bark that peels off easily

 
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Silvics of Yellow Birch

SILVICS OF YELLOW BIRCH
(Betula alleghaniensis Britt.)

Common names:
- curly birch, hard birch, black birch

Field identification aids:
- leaves are oval shaped with many teeth along the margins
- yellow to golden papery bark that peels off in thin strips
- bark of older tree is platy and dark

Average mature tree:
- 70 to 90 years old
- 18 m to 24 m (60' to 80') tall
- 30 cm to 60 cm (12" to 24") in diameter at breast height

Maximum life span:
- 300 years

Shade tolerance:
- medium

Rooting:
- deep, wide-spreading lateral roots

Windfirmness:
- windfirm on well drained soils

Reproduction:
- reproduces by seed or stump sprouting
- seed may begin to produce seed when 40 years old, with full production after 70 years
- good seed crop production every 1 to 2 years
- poor germination on undisturbed litter layer
- best seed germination occurs on a moist mixture of humus and mineral soil
Growing sites:
- range from well-drained to poorly-drained soils
- usually found on moderate to well-drained soils

Associated species:
- black spruce and red maple on poorly-drained sites
- sugar maple, red maple, beech, red spruce, eastern hemlock and balsam fir on well-drained sites
- seldom found in pure stands in Nova Scotia

Principal damaging agents:
- nectria canker birch leaf skeletonizer, white-marked tussock moth, bronze birch borer
- birch dieback causes some mortality

Notes:
- yellow birch comprises 5.1 % of themerchantable volume in Nova Scotia
- favorite hardwood browse of deer
- the tree often has stilted roots due to germination occurring on dead tree or stump
- one of Nova Scotia’s most valuable native birches
- commonly used for flooring, furniture, cabinet work, and veneer

Quick ID:
Yellow birch twigs have a wintergreen taste

 
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